Cognition: The Processes of Thinking
Perception
- The process by which sensory input is interpreted and organized into meaningful information.
- Three main types: Auditory, visual, and tactile
- Influenced by: Expectations, culture, and past experiences
Attention
- The process of selectively focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
- Types: Overt, covert, focused, and divided
- Influenced by: Motivation, interest, and level of arousal
Memory
- The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
- Three main types: Sensory, short-term, and long-term
- Influenced by: Rehearsal, encoding, and retrieval cues
Learning: The Process of Acquiring New Knowledge and Skills
Classical Conditioning
- A type of learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in the neutral stimulus eliciting an unconditioned response.
- Experiment: Ivan Pavlov’s dogs
- Applications: Advertising, education
Operant Conditioning
- A type of learning where behavior is reinforced or punished, leading to an increase or decrease in its occurrence.
- Experiment: B.F. Skinner’s rats
- Applications: Behavior modification, training
Social Learning
- A type of learning where individuals learn through observation, imitation, and modeling.
- Experiment: Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll study
- Applications: Media influence, social norms
Motivation: The Driving Force of Behavior
Extrinsic Motivation
- Motivation that comes from external rewards or punishments.
- Characteristics: Short-term, superficial, and conditional
- Examples: Money, grades, social approval
Intrinsic Motivation
- Motivation that comes from within, based on interest, enjoyment, or personal growth.
- Characteristics: Long-term, sustainable, and unconditional
- Examples: Learning for the sake of learning, pursuing hobbies, creative expression
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- A theory that suggests human needs are organized in a hierarchical fashion, with basic needs needing to be satisfied before higher-level needs.
- Levels: Physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self-actualization
Emotion: The Psychological Response to Stimuli
Primary Emotions
- Basic, innate emotions experienced by all humans.
- Examples: Joy, sadness, anger, fear, surprise
- Influenced by: Genetics, culture, and physiology
Secondary Emotions
- Complex, learned emotions that develop over time.
- Examples: Guilt, shame, pride, jealousy
- Influenced by: Socialization, experiences, and cognitive processes
Emotional Intelligence
- The ability to understand, manage, and express emotions effectively.
- Components: Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, social skills
- Benefits: Improved relationships, reduced stress, increased resilience
Development: The Changes Occurring Throughout the Lifespan
Physical Development
- The growth and changes in the body from conception to adulthood.
- Key milestones: Motor skills, puberty, aging
- Influenced by: Genetics, nutrition, and environment
Cognitive Development
- The changes in intellectual abilities, problem-solving skills, and knowledge acquisition from childhood to adulthood.
- Stages: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
- Influenced by: Education, social interactions, and experiences
Psychosocial Development
- The changes in personality, social relationships, and emotional maturity from childhood to adulthood.
- Stages: Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
- Influenced by: Parents, peers, and culture
Psychopathology: The Study of Mental Illness
Symptoms and Diagnosis
- Mental disorders are characterized by specific symptoms that can be diagnosed using criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
- Common symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, anxiety, depression
- Diagnosis: Requires clinical evaluation by a qualified professional
Classification
- Mental disorders are classified into various categories, including anxiety disorders, mood disorders, personality disorders, and psychotic disorders.
- Categories: Neurosis, psychosis, mood disorders
Treatment
- Treatment for mental disorders involves a range of approaches, including therapy, medication, and lifestyle changes.
- Common therapies: Cognitive behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy, humanistic therapy
- Common medications: Antidepressants, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers
Glossary of Key AP Psych Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute Threshold | The minimum level of stimulation that can be detected |
| Amnesia | The loss of memory |
| Cognitive Dissonance | The psychological discomfort experienced when two or more beliefs or attitudes conflict |
| Ego | The part of the personality that balances the demands of reality and the id’s impulses |
| Gestalt Psychology | The school of thought that emphasized the importance of perceiving the whole rather than the parts |
| Latency Period | The stage of psychosexual development during which children’s sexual urges are dormant |
| Myelination | The process by which the axons of neurons become coated with a fatty substance, improving the speed of neural transmission |
| Nature vs. Nurture | The debate over the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development |
| Operant Conditioning | A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced or punished, leading to an increase or decrease in its occurrence |
| Phylogenetic | Relating to the evolutionary history of a species |
| Psychophysics | The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experiences |
| Social Cognition | The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to others |
Additional Tables for Comprehensive Understanding
| Table 1: Types of Memory | Table 2: Stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development | Table 3: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development | Table 4: Common Mental Disorders |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory Memory | Sensorimotor | Trust vs. Mistrust | Anxiety Disorders |
| Short-Term Memory | Preoperational | Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt | Mood Disorders |
| Long-Term Memory | Concrete Operational | Initiative vs. Guilt | Personality Disorders |
| Working Memory | Formal Operational | Industry vs. Inferiority | Psychotic Disorders |
| Identity vs. Role Confusion | |||
| Intimacy vs. Isolation | |||
| Generativity vs. Stagnation | |||
| Integrity vs. Despair |
Applications for a New Era of Education
- Personalized Learning: Understanding cognitive processes and learning theories can help educators tailor instruction to individual student needs.
- Emotional Intelligence Development: Implementing programs that foster emotional intelligence can enhance students’ social-emotional skills and overall well-being.
- Mental Health Awareness: AP Psych education can raise awareness about mental health issues, reduce stigma, and encourage help-seeking behaviors.
- Data-Driven Decision-Making: The wealth of data collected in AP Psych research can inform educational practices and improve student outcomes.
